Teen pregnancy Essay Example for Free

Teen pregnancy Essay Teenage pregnancy is a social problem that has existed for over a century and has always been a great concern to every nation due to the numerous adverse consequences it brings on both the economy and society at large. In the middle of the 70s, teenage pregnancy had reached an astronomical height that it was described as â€Å"epidemic† by the Alan Guttmacher Institute in a booklet entitled â€Å"11 Million Teenagers† which was widely circulated at the time (Gallagher, M. , 1999). This, in fact, put pressure on Congress at the time to pass a bill that would increase family planning fund by hundred percent as a strategy to curtail teenage pregnancy â€Å"epidemic† (Gallagher, M. , 1999). The rate of Teenage Pregnancy rose from 23. 9 births per 1000 single female teenagers in 1975 to 31. 4 in 1985, and to 46. 4 in 1994. In the last part of the 90s, the rate had dropped by16 percent. For teenagers between 15 and 19 years, the rate of teen pregnancy had dropped by 36 per cent by 2002 and 33 per cent by 2004 (Gallagher, M. , 1999). Until recent times, Teenage pregnancy was considered an abomination and a mockery to a family. It carried a stigma and a disgrace to the young mothers and their immediate families. The young mothers were often considered sinners and the children born out of wedlock were referred to as bastards or illegitimate. The horror and the disgrace that was immediately associated with giving birth to bastards or illegitimate children, kept teenage pregnancy at the lowest minimum (Sprague, C. , 2009). In the 20th Century, the attitude of society toward teen mothers and their children or teenage pregnancy in general changed; society looked at them with compassion. Soon the horror, the intimidation, and the stigma that surrounds teenage pregnancy dissipated. This has, in no simple terms, contributed to the current level of teen pregnancy in our society. Though the rate of Teenage Pregnancy has declined in the United States in the last decade, it is still considered high, relative to other developed countries such as Sweden, Great Britain, and Denmark. Teenage pregnancy is a real social problem that requires all and sundry in finding a lasting solution to it. What makes teen pregnancy a huge problem lies in the negative effects it brings. The purpose of this work is to discuss some of the effects of teenage pregnancy which include health issues, school dropouts and dependency on the public for economic support. One striking effect with teenage pregnancy is the high propensity for the pregnant teenager to suffer some health problems. Very often, teenagers who become pregnant try to hide their pregnancy from their parents and in so doing, they do not get the necessary medical attention that initial pregnancy requires or may use crude means to abort the baby which can result in bleeding and death. About 33% of pregnant teenagers do not receive proper prenatal care and monitoring (Sprague, C. , 2009). This can result in an increased risk of miscarriage, anemia and high blood pressure in the pregnant teenager. Also, children born to teenage mothers usually exhibit low birth weight which is accompanied with other health hazards like respiratory disease, bleeding in the brain, and intestinal problems. All these account for the high mortality rate for infants born to teenage mothers than those born to women older than 20. This will in effect put some financial demand on the families of the teenage mothers. Another effect that has captivated the attention of civil society is the rate at which pregnant teenagers drop out of school. Drop outs today are ill-effects for future labor force; a situation which can cause poverty and semi-illiterates which civil society considers very serious in the development of a nation. Research shows that between 30 to 35 per cent of pregnant teenagers drop out of school compared to the 6 per cent of non-pregnant teenagers (Sprague, C. , 2009). Dropping out of school has an inherent effect on the teenage mothers; the early pregnancy deprives them of getting the necessary education and skills that will ensure them of rewarding and stable jobs. Finding a regular source of income therefore, becomes extremely difficult for teenage mothers as every job position requires certain skills. Their inabilities to secure jobs lead them to falling on the public for financial support. Finally, pregnant teenagers are likely to encounter abject poverty if they do not have a strong financial backing from their parents. Surprisingly, a higher percentage of these teens come from either broken home or staying with single parents, and are already living in poverty (Gallagher, M). Also, most of these teens are unmarried and likely to be single mothers which will cause them to face further acute economic hardships than if they were married. The only alternative at their disposal to partially solving their economic predicaments in the short run is to seek public assistance; that is, relying on welfare which includes food stamp. Over 80 per cent of teen mothers go on welfare within three years of giving birth (Sprague, C. , 2009). If the teen mother does not go back to school to attain any profession which is mostly the case, their daughters are more likely to become teen mothers and it becomes a vicious cycle. There are numerous effects of teenage pregnancy but the limit of this paper cannot exhaust all of them. In conclusion, teenage pregnancy is one source that can cause health, economic and educational setbacks not only in the lives of teenagers who allow them to be impregnated but generations down the â€Å"road†. All these can be averted if teenagers are taught abstinence from early sex until they have at least completed high school or attained age of 20. Where the teenagers are uncontrollable, they must be advice to use protections such as condoms but one thing is that condom is not 100 percent safe. There has been instances where condoms have torn and causing pregnancy. References

Essay --

In a Peloponnesian town of Phlius, Echecrates encounters Phaedo, one of the men present during Socrates' final hours. Echecrates presses Phaedo to tell what happened. A number of Socrates' friends were gathered in his cell, including his old friend Crito and two Pythagorean philosophers, Simmias and Cebes. The account begins with Socrates proposing that though suicide is wrong, a true philosopher should look forward to death. The soul, Socrates asserts, is immortal and the philosopher spends his life training it to detach itself from the needs of the body. In Phaedo by Plato, Socrates provides four arguments for this claim: the opposites, recollection, affinity between the forms and the soul, and the argument that essentially brings life with it can never die. Plato uses the from opposites to support his idea uses the first argument for the immortality of the soul. Socrates repondes with two general statements,list statements then applies these hypotheses to life, death, and the soul. Socrates’ first general statement is that change is between contraries. The hard becomes soft and objects which are soft hardens or becomes hard. The cold becomes hot and the hot becomes cold. The sick become healthy and the healthy become sick. All things, come to be from their opposite; for example, a tall man becomes tall only because he was short before. Similarly, death is the opposite of life, and so living things come to be out of dead things and vice versa. This implies that there is a cycle of life and death. Thus, when we die, we do not stay dead, but come back to life after a period of time. The second general statement is that if both contraries continue to exist. In the world, there must be change in both directions. Therefore, if ther... ...e soul participates in the Form of Life. Like fire, the soul will have to resist its opposite, the Form of Death, to exist. Furthermore, for a soul to exist, it has the ontological necessity of being undying immortal just as the number 3 to be considered odd has the ontological necessity of being uneven. Therefore, while the soul is contained inside the body and the body is subject to death, the soul eschews death in order to exist from one life to the next. In conclusion, In Phaedo, Plato is using Socrates to put his own philosophical views. Socrates relies on four arguments to convince his friends of the soul's immortality. Also, Plato demonstrates that how Socrates uses human reason. Socrates uses Plato's theory of Forms is pivotal in Socrates' final attempt to prove the immortality of the soul. By using four arguments for to prove the immorality of the soul. Essay -- In a Peloponnesian town of Phlius, Echecrates encounters Phaedo, one of the men present during Socrates' final hours. Echecrates presses Phaedo to tell what happened. A number of Socrates' friends were gathered in his cell, including his old friend Crito and two Pythagorean philosophers, Simmias and Cebes. The account begins with Socrates proposing that though suicide is wrong, a true philosopher should look forward to death. The soul, Socrates asserts, is immortal and the philosopher spends his life training it to detach itself from the needs of the body. In Phaedo by Plato, Socrates provides four arguments for this claim: the opposites, recollection, affinity between the forms and the soul, and the argument that essentially brings life with it can never die. Plato uses the from opposites to support his idea uses the first argument for the immortality of the soul. Socrates repondes with two general statements,list statements then applies these hypotheses to life, death, and the soul. Socrates’ first general statement is that change is between contraries. The hard becomes soft and objects which are soft hardens or becomes hard. The cold becomes hot and the hot becomes cold. The sick become healthy and the healthy become sick. All things, come to be from their opposite; for example, a tall man becomes tall only because he was short before. Similarly, death is the opposite of life, and so living things come to be out of dead things and vice versa. This implies that there is a cycle of life and death. Thus, when we die, we do not stay dead, but come back to life after a period of time. The second general statement is that if both contraries continue to exist. In the world, there must be change in both directions. Therefore, if ther... ...e soul participates in the Form of Life. Like fire, the soul will have to resist its opposite, the Form of Death, to exist. Furthermore, for a soul to exist, it has the ontological necessity of being undying immortal just as the number 3 to be considered odd has the ontological necessity of being uneven. Therefore, while the soul is contained inside the body and the body is subject to death, the soul eschews death in order to exist from one life to the next. In conclusion, In Phaedo, Plato is using Socrates to put his own philosophical views. Socrates relies on four arguments to convince his friends of the soul's immortality. Also, Plato demonstrates that how Socrates uses human reason. Socrates uses Plato's theory of Forms is pivotal in Socrates' final attempt to prove the immortality of the soul. By using four arguments for to prove the immorality of the soul.

Participatory Workplace

The organization to which I am affiliated employs about five employees. The owner of the workplace is our boss. Typically, the organization is receptionist; that is, it is produces service-oriented products. The organization produces only hair products since it has limited resources to diversify product sale. Compared with other business establishments, the organization is small. In my 25 years of work, the organization grew little probably because its capital base was insufficient for expanding capital outlay. The organization though continues to provide the public quality hair products. Its supply chain of hair products is relatively open and diverse. The organization can procure hair products from different manufacturers. This makes transactions more competitive (because of the existence of many manufacturers). The organization is typically controlled by the principles of human resource management. Independent contractors are used for the procurement of supplies. Hiring of employees involves several stages. First is the identification of positions vacant. Second is finding potential recruits to fill these vacancies. Third is training the recruits to ensure that they will become high performing employees. The selected recruits will be hired. They will be given employment packages and benefits (corollary to their type of work). Terms of employment and regulations of the firm will be discussed in scheduled sessions. This is done to make the employees aware of the firm’s policies and current economic standing. Regulations will serve as limits to employee behavior in the workplace. Most of the time, regulations are systematically arranged in manuals which are given to employees. In the case of my organization, selection of potential employees is easy and not as restrictive as that of large business establishments. Usually, selection of potential employees and the training period are limited to 2 or 3 weeks. Orientation of the organization’s policies and regulations usually take a day (this is so since the organization is small). In sociology, centralization is defined as the process by which activities of an organization, especially those about decision-making are concentrated within particular positions or areas. Centralization can be vertical or horizontal. Vertical centralization is the typical relationship between departments and the board of directors. The board of directors usually provides the general framework of a given policy. The managers of the departments implement the provisions of a policy. Hence, the managers execute the specifics of a given policy. Horizontal centralization is the typical relationship between departments. In organizational theory, some departments are generally important than other departments. For example, the sales department is usually more important than the legal department of a firm precisely because the former holds the future of the firm. The sales department determines the financial status of a firm. Hence, relatively, the actions of the sales department may determine the actions of the other departments. Under centralization, open communication is only possible between managers of several departments and the general manager of the firm, and between the board of directors and the general manager. Open communication between ordinary employees and the management is done through division supervisors (although the information becomes blur as it passes from one level to another). Open information is only possible for high level managers and of course, the board of directors. Standardization is the process of agreeing upon a given set of guidelines for interoperability. Standardization is tantamount to enacting rules to maintain the operability of an organization. Hence, an organization creates standardized procedures in order to provide the employees an efficient and effective means of rendering work to the firm. For example, standardized guidelines for hiring employees allow a given company to select the best and efficient people to occupy vacant positions in the company. In addition, standardization generally prevents work discrimination in a company. This is so since the behavior of all workers in a company is limited by standardized work procedures. Role specialization in industrial sociology is defined as the diversification of job positions in the workplace. As one may note, jobs in most companies are highly diversified. Diversification ensures efficiency and effectiveness of a company. Diversifying job positions saves time and amount for a company. In addition, diversification provides the avenue for increased cooperation and interdependence among workers. For example, rather than employing two script writers, it is efficient for a film production group to employ one script writer and one film reviewer. This saves time for the firm. Autonomy is a condition in which employees are given some freehand over the nature and discourse of their jobs. This is typical of research firms where employees are given deadlines. The employees are free to do anything so long as the prescribed work is finished on or before the given deadline. By giving some autonomy to the employees, alienation is prevented. The employees are able to exercise their work values (professionalism) and skills without institutional limits. The distribution of power in a firm should be made more uniform to allow workers more voice. Resting power to one person or group of persons prevents workers from airing their grievances. Thus, in making the distribution of power more uniform, the firm creates institutions or channels that can absorb all the grievances and needs of the workers. Once the grievances are well documented, negotiation is the only plausible option. In the negotiation process, the management and the workers should have equal powers in terms of negotiation. The options that management will take should be compensated by the actions that the workers will enforce. Technology should be made more human-resource oriented; that is, technology should put under the discretion of both the management and the workers. If the management solely controls the direction of a firm’s technology, the workers loses value. If the control and direction of a firm’s technology solely belongs to the workers (e.g. in communist countries), the firm loses potential earnings. Therefore, there is a need to strike a middle position between the management and the workers. A middle position will enable the two parties to cooperate effectively with regard to the use of technology in the company. In addition, this will make work more participatory (employees and the management). In terms of skill, no substantial changes are necessary except that related skills should be realigned. This will allow more cooperation between employees, and consequently, making work more participatory (since every job in the firm is viewed essential to the continuity of a firm’s operations). Here are then the necessary changes that the management should undertake to make work more participatory: 1) Realigning related jobs – increased cooperation among related jobs increases employee participation and motivation of employees; 2)Putting some technologies of the company under the control of the employees – the employees will determine the production process (work in general), making their perception of the workplace more positive. This will generally increase participation among employees; 3)And, institutionalizing open channels of communication (grievances included) – the needs and grievances of the employees will be taken into account by management. If these needs and grievances are addressed, the management will expect an increased worker propensity to participate in company activities. Reference Hall, Richard and Pamela S. Tolbert. (2004). Organizations: Structures, Processes, and O

Government Low Carbon Housing Demands Effects On Contractors - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6161 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Sustainability has been on the lips of everyone involved in the construction industry for the last 10 years. However, the issue of Sustainability arouse first in a Report named à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Our Common Futureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. This then prompted the need for the conference in Brazil (1992). Discussed in this conference were the core principles of sustainability being; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Greene, D. (1997) Both à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Sustainabilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Recessionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ are both terms in which have a range of meanings and attitudes. As the issue of Sustainability is being used more and more in the construction industry is recent years it is imperative to try and pin point exactly what sustainable commercial construction is. It is also paramount to determine just exactly what the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"recessionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ is and show just how they have affected each other. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Government Low Carbon Housing Demands Effects On Contractors" essay for you Create order In recent years, we have had two previous recessions, one being in the 1980à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s and the second one being in the early 1990à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s. This is the third à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"recessionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ that the country has been in, in as many decades. In June 2008, the country officially entered the third recession, of which we are still in today, Sustainability has become more of a problem in recent years due to the major issue of the recession. Sustainability needs to be addressed and identified and it is important that it is done within one of the largest industries, if not the biggest, being the construction industry. In my research I will hopefully try to clarify the terms, sustainable commercial construction and the recession and show how each one has affected the other. Keywords Sustainable Commercial Construction; Recession; Introduction One of the main priorities for the construction industry and any construction company are to produce Sustainable Commercial Buildings. As everyone knows, the country has been hit by a recession with the construction industry being hit the hardest. It is important to define exactly what Sustainable Construction in commercial buildings is and exactly what the recession is and see just how the recession has affected Sustainable Commercial Construction 1.2 Aim In this dissertation I aim to investigate exactly what the recession is, exactly what sustainable development is and I aim to show the audience just how each one has affected each other 1.3 Project Objectives To define the recession To define sustainable construction To determine just how the recession and sustainable construction have been affected by each other. What barriers or influences encourage or deter companies to build Sustainable Commercial Buildings. 1.4 Proposed Structure 1.4.1 Background First of all the research will define both the recession and will also define sustainable construction and go on to look at how they have been affected by one another. The research should then go on and look at what barriers or influences encourage or deter companies to build Sustainable Buildings. 1.4.2 Collection of Results The collection of results will be accomplished using professionals who are currently working in and around the construction industry. Results will be collected with information regarding their views on whether Sustainable Construction has been affected by the Recession and other information regarding Sustainable Construction. 1.4.3 Analysis The results collected from my interviews will then be analysed so that an outcome can be gained to answer the investigation objectives pointed out earlier. They will also be analysed to show a comparison with past research relating Sustainable Construction and the Recession. 1.4.4 Final Analysis The final analysis is the last part of the research, like a conclusion it will assess the data to check and make sure that all aspects of the investigation have been covered. The investigation will then be checked to make sure it cannot be improved and revisited. Sustainable Commercial Construction and the Recession Scope of the Chapter This section of the dissertation will determine the definition of Sustainable Commercial Construction and will also try and determine just exactly what a recession is. 2.2 The Recession In June 2008 the United Kingdom officially entered the recession that we are still in today. The main area that has been affected in this country and many other countries is construction, which has been hit massively. Companies and businesses right across the board are being affected from big names such as Balfour Beatty, the Kier Group down to small independent companies. Any sort of work is few and far between nowadays with every company accepting any sort of work no matter how small or big it is. I feel that this topic as it will show you past the commercial side of the recession. Everybody knows that the country is in the recession, but not that many people know exactly what a recession is and what damage it can cause to the economy and the country. It has a massive knock on affect right the way down the board and I believe that if we are going to get out of the recession quickly and efficiently people need to know how to adapt and work with it. The recession is not very well understood for one simple factor: There is not a universally agreed upon definition. There is a standard newspaper definition of a recession à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"is a decline in the gross domestic product (GDP) for two or more consecutive quartersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. There are 4 quarters to the year and each one lasts for approximately 12 weeks. This definition is not popular with most economists for two main reasons. Firstly, this definition does not take into account changes in other variables such as unemployment rate or consumer confidence. Secondly, by using quarterly data this definition makes it difficult to pinpoint when a recession starts to when it ends. The second definition is from the Business Cycle Dating Committee (BCDC). The committee provides a better way to find out whether or not there has been a definition as they determine the amount of business activity in the economy by looking at, employment, industrial production, real income and whole -sail retail sites. The past 20 years has been a growing realisation that the current model of development is unsustainable and basically, we are living beyond our means. Before anyone knew anything about this current recession, one part of construction that was on the rise was sustainable development. It is rumoured that one of the key factors in which the recession was brought on is that companies were being too selfish in that they were thinking about the short term rather than the long term. Some unsustainable business practices were concerned about profiteering and not focused enough on balancing profit with social and environmental targets. With the current economic crises being the way it is, companies are rarely willing to spend money on anything but essentials to their business. The credit crunch has virtually halted all new development and with falling land prices, affordability has become more important than ever, thereby highlighting development costs and the increased expense of complying with sustainable standards. Ultimately crucial issues related to sustainable development such as healthcare, education, affordable access to food, water, energy and responsible harvesting of natural resources are being affected as the crisis deepens. The increasing stress we put on resources and environmental systems such as water, land and air cannot go on forever. The need for Sustainable Commercial Development is too great to be ignored. Even in this recession and the state that the economy is in it is absolutely paramount that we as a country, continent and as a human race continue to develop sustainably. Instead of businesses thinking of their short term future, they now need to be thinking about their long term future. Instead of reeling in the cash straight away, we need to hold out and wait for the return from sustainable buildings and development all round. The sooner people and companies realize this, then the sooner the construction industry will have left the recession and will be planning for the future and sustainable development wonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t be a thing upon which businesses sigh about doing, it will become the first thing they think of. 3.0 Sustainable Buildings Sustainability in building was completely unknown up until around the late 1970à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s. The idea only came about in reply to the energy crisis and people concerned about the environment. There are not many people in this country or the world in fact who will not have heard the word à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"sustainabilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ but the vast majority of them will not understand what it means. According to Holmberg and Sandbrook (1992) there now appears to be 70 definitions in circulation. However, out of these 70 or so definitions that are circulating there is no definite, set definition of sustainable building but according to Kirby et al (1995) the definition which is commonly deemed as the most accurate or the official one is the Brundtland definition (WCED 1987) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“development that meets the needs of the present without comprising the ability of future generations to meet their own needsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Although, Brundtland did make this definition, it is an adaption of a previous definition made by Lester Brown. Lester Brown however defined a sustainable society, rather than sustainable development. He defined a sustainable society as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“one that is able to satisfy its needs without diminishing the chance of future generationsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. (Charles J Kilbert 2008) It is easy to see the comparisons between the two definitions made firstly by Lester Brown and secondly, the Brundtland definition. Although the Brundtland definition is the most common and widely used, it doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t define sustainable construction, only sustainable development. According to Dickie and Howard (2000) they describe sustainable construction as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the contribution of construction to sustainable developmentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. This definition from Dickie an Howard (2000) is very simple, but explains a lot, anyone would be able to understand it. Oà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢Riorden (1985) commented on the difficulty of describing sustainability, describing its definition as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Exploration into a tangled conceptual jungle where watchful eyes lurk at every bendà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. This description of how hard and elusive it is to describe correctly what sustainability just shows you how vague and confusing defining sustainability can become. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“sustainability is like plumbing or air conditioning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s a general attitude you apply to a building. It doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t create its own architecture but it informs the way architecture is producedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Slavid, Ruth (1998) uses this definition and ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s obvious that there are not only different definitions but also different meanings to the definitions. According to Addis, B and Talbot, R (2001) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Sustainable development is about achieving economic and social objectives while minimising adverse environmental impactsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? This definition comes from the e-journal; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Sustainable construction procurement: a guide to delivering environmentally responsible projectsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ by Addis, B and Talbot, R (2001). As you can see all the definitions on this page and the previous page all define sustainable construction, development or sustainability on the whole, and they are all pretty much nothing like each other. Although there have been many definitions of sustainability for example that from the World Congress of Architects (1993) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Sustainability means meeting our needs today without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Even though all the definitions above are different you can see a definite trend between them. I believe they are all loosely based on that from the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future. This report is commonly known as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The Brundtland Reportà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Some people may believe that having no definition for sustainable development could be an issue because how are people meant to implement and deliver sustainable development and in this case sustainable construction if an official definition has not been agreed. 3.1 Case Study To help what is understand what is involved in Sustainable Commercial Construction, a case study will be used. Whitecross High School, Hereford, England Owner: Herefordshire County Council Address: Three Elms Road, Herford, Herefordshire Architect: Haverstock Associates Building Services Consultant: Couch Perry Wilkes Contractor: Stepnell LTD Figure 1 Image of Whitecross High School, Hereford, England Whitecross High School in Hereford was primarily designed where energy / sustainability was high priority for the client. The gross internal floor area of the school is 9160m2 and was built for approximately 900 students. The brief for the project contained stringent sustainability requirements, and this became the key driver for the design process. Sustainable features of Whitecross High School: High mass and thermal insulation levels with low air permeability rates Excellent air quality and summertime temperature control Heat recovery ventilation 90% efficient Very Low annual energy consumption Sustainable solutions provided within PFI cost framework Natural materials used throughout construction Hazardous materials excluded from the building specification Following the case study, we can see at the Whitecross High School that not only is there sustainable energy solutions in this sustainable building but there have been solutions designed in the buildings. For example the excellent air quality and summertime temperature control system means that other expensive and unreliable systems would not be needed, saving time and money on the sustainable building. You can tell by the number of definitions and the lack of agreement of an official definition about the subject of sustainability and sustainable construction is confusing and complex. The main disagreement is apparent around how to implement sustainable construction what systems actually make a sustainable building, sustainable. 4.0 Research Approach 4.1 Scope of the Chapter This chapter of my dissertation will outline the research methods used to complete my dissertation. It will compare the two different types of research and will also show why I have chosen my specific method. 4.2 Qualitative and Quantitative Research When researching for any type of information there are different methods that can be used. There are two principal strands of data collection methodologies and strategies which are distinctly different. (Bryman 2004) Quantitative research involves the use of structured questions where the answer are predetermined, this research is done over a large number of respondents and is statistically valid while qualitative research is about collecting and analysing data interpreting what people say or do for instance a questionnaire. The very nature of the dissertation, the different types of information needed in order to achieve the objectives and the resources that are actually available like time implications for instance affects what types of research methods will be used. To gain a wider perspective about sustainable development and about the current recession period, it is always a good idea to do some research within the public, using both primary and secondary research. There are many different types of research that you could do, some of which are quantitative and qualitative approaches. Usually research methods and styles are not mutually exclusive although only one, or a small number of approaches, will normally be adopted due to resource constraints on the work. The different approaches focus on collection and analysis of data rather than examination of theory and literature. Quantitative approaches normally seek to gather factual data, studying relationships between facts and how such facts and relationships accord with theories and the findings and of research carried out previously. Qualitative approaches seek to gain and understand peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s perceptions, both as individuals and as groups. This research looks at peopleà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s beliefs, understandings, opinions and views etc are investigated. The data is detailed and rich in content because the data gathered may be unstructed, but will be in their raw form. If you do use this method of research you would have to be willing to be highly laborious, involving transcripting interviews etc. The researchers are likely to be closely involved in all stages of the work in a more active way than usually is acceptable in quantitative studies. Features of Qualitative research Features of Quantitative research Difference in respect to: Quantitative Research Qualitative Research The aim is a complete, detailed description. The aim is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed. Underpinning philosophy Rationalism: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"That human beings achieve knowledge because of their capacity to reasonà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Bernard, 1994) Empiricism; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å" the only knowledge that human beings acquire is from sensory experiencesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Bernard, 1994) Researcher may only know roughly in advance what he/she is looking for Researcher knows clearly in advance what he/she is looking for. Approach to inquiry Structured/ rigid/ predetermined methodology Unstructured/ flexible/ open methodology Recommended during earlier phases of research projects Recommended during latter phases of research projects Main Purpose of investigation To quantify extent or variation in phenomenon, situation, issues etc. To describe variation in a phenomenon, situation, issue etc. The design emerges as the study unfolds All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected Measurement of variables Emphasis on some form of either measurement or classification of variable. Emphasis on description of variables Researcher is the data gathering instrument Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or equipment to collect numerical data Sample Size Emphasis on greater sample size Fewer cases Data is in the form of words, pictures or objects Data is in the form of numbers and statistics. Focus of inquiry Narrows focus in terms of extent of inquiry, but assembles required information from a greater number of respondents Covers multiple issues but assembles required information from fewer respondents Subjective individualsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ interpretation of events is important ,e.g., uses participant observation, in-depth interviews etc. Objective à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" seeks precise measurement analysis of target concepts, e.g., uses surveys, questionnaires etc Dominant research value Reliability and objectivity (value-free) Authenticity but does not claim to be value- free Qualitative data is more rich, time consuming, and less able to be generalized.   Quantitative data is more efficient, able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail. Dominant research topic Explains prevalence, incidence, extent, nature of issues, opinions and attitude; discovers regularities and formulates theories Explores experiences, meanings, perceptions and feelings Researcher tends to become subjectively immersed in the subject matter. Researcher tends to remain objectively separated from the subject matter. Analysis of data Subjects variables to frequency distributions, cross-tabulations or other statistical procedures Subjects responses, narratives or observation data to identification of themes and describes these Communication of findings Organisation more analytical in nature, drawing references and conclusions, and testing magnitude and strength of relationship Organisational more descriptive and narrative in nature Figure 2 Table adapted from www.wilderdom.com and Kumar (2005) The features of qualitative and quantitative research methods along with the differences in the two methods can be seen in Figure which has been adapted from www.wilderdom.com and Kumar (2005) The table shows the two different research methods that can be used and their advantages and disadvantages. It shoes the features of both Qualitative Research and Quantitative Research. 4.3 Research Design There are several different ways that the research for this project could be undertaken and when looking at the most suitable method. There are three major factors that are the most significant amongst the others that need to be taken into account. They are; Reliability Replication Validity These three factors that have been identified are all issues that could affect the consistency, therefore the reliability of the data for my dissertation 4.4 Approaches to date collection 4.4.1 Interviews Interviews have been described by Kumar (2005) as being person to person interaction with specific purposes. There are two main types of interviews and these can be seen in figure below taken from Kumar (2005, page. 123) Interview Styles Unstructured Structured Flexible interview structure Rigid interview structure Flexible interview contents Rigidy interview, rigid interview contents Flexible interview questions Questions and their wording Figure 3 Diagram showing the two possible interview techniques The advantages and disadvantages of interviews have been identified in the table below. Advantages of Interview Disadvantages of Interview    More appropriate for complex situations Can be expensive and time consuming Interviewing has a wider application Interviewee could be bias Questions can be explained Quality of information may deteriorate Good for in depth information Quality of interviewee may be poor Face to face interaction Quality of data could differ on interaction Figure 4 Advantages and disadvantages of the interview 4.5 Research Proposal Because of my dissertation, and what it is involving, it was not feasible for me to produce any quantitative data as the majority of the general public will have very limited or no information whatsoever about my chosen subject. Therefore my research method was a set of self designed research questions used to gather honest and first hand information, about the effects the recession is having on commercial sustainable construction. The purpose of this interview based approach was to abstract through questions the information needed to answer the research question. Tesch, (1990) defines qualitative research as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Intensive study of one individual or a group as an entitiy, through observation, self-reports and any other meansà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. In this case the individual was interviewed alone, yet was also grouped together in order to distinguish any inter related experiences. 4.6 Sampling It is clear that to get the best information possible, a wide range of professionals needs to be used. I therefore opted to use professionals from different backgrounds to interview. The professions in which I used are; Building Surveyor Life Cycle Director Commercial Sector Director Senior Design Manager The reason for selection of the professionals is that hopefully I can gain an insight into the different views on the set of self designed questions that have been prepared for them. I was careful in choosing the professionals in which I did. I wanted to gain the best information possible to obtain the best results for my dissertation. I decided on choosing professionals who are well established in their different fields and have a wide vocabulary of knowledge, and in some cases, have plenty of experience. 4.7 Interview Design I decided in order to gain the best and most accurate information it would be best to have a structure interview. Therefore I would take a set of pre determined questions into the interview and asked to the professionals. The advantages of such a structured interview would be that each and every one of the professionals would be asked the same questions then a better analysis could be gained as their responses are all to the same questions 4.8 Summary The above chapter covers the whole process of collecting data and the means for it to be compiled. 5.0 Data Collection Activities 5.1 Scope of the Chapter This chapter in hand looks at the activities that took place in order for me to successfully collect the data. The data collection activity covers what was completed to collect the resulting information and the processes that have taken place. The following chapter should show the results collected, which be analysed according to the objectives. 5.2 Data Collection The only source of data collection was conducted using structures interviews. The interviews were recording on different days, but in the same week as I deemed it important as it would give me the most accurate information. The professionals all gave a good sample of answers to the questions given to them. The interviewees were of a high professional level and of high standard. 5.3 Interview Results I considered it was important to correctly select the amount of the actual questions I would be asking. This was for the simple reason that it would give me the best and most accurate answers about sustainable commercial buildings, the recession and whether or not they have had an effect on each other. Independant Variables I deemed it necessary to find out the age of the interviewees, the years of experience they have in the necessary feild and more importantly what their profession was. Age of the interviewee Figure 5 shows the age of the participants Amount of experience in current profession Figure 6 shows the amount of experience each interviewee has What profession the participants are in Figure 7 shows the profession of the interviewees 6.0 Data analysis 6.1 Scope of the chapter In this chapter I will critically analyse the results that were compiled from the interviews that were undertaken. The results will assess the impact that the interviews have had upon the research completed, and will compare or contrast findings. The way in which I will be analysing the interviews is by looking at each question, explaining each of the results and from there, I will be analysing them. Question 01 Analysis Do you utilise in-house staff rather than specialist consultants? Results You can see from the transcripts that the interviewees have answered the question, with different opinions. Interviewee 1 and Interviewee 3 both say that they use both in-house and specialist consultants. Interviewee 3 then goes on to say that the main reason they are using in-house staff rather than specialist consultants is that they are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“much much cheaperà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Interviewee 2 and Interviewee number 5 both have the same sort of answer. They both said that they try to use specialist consultants rather than in-house staff in their companies. Interviewee number 2 explained it was because à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“contractors are seeing the need for specialist advice that can help them differentiate in a competitive market; to have an edge and make sure they win the tender.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Interviewee number 4 however, said that in his company they try to utilise the in-house staff as much as possible but because the company in which he is employed by is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“fairly small company compared to the Balfour Beattyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s, Carillionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s and other such companies.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Analysis From this question, I have a mixed bag of answers to whether companies use in-house staff or specialist consultants. Because of the varied answers, I believe that some companies are doing better in the recession than other companies and still can afford the specialist consultants. I also believe from the answers that some people believe it is more important to gain the specialist knowledge than it is to use in house staff as they believe using in-house staff hinders your chances of winning a contract when tendering for it so having the best knowledge possible is key. Questions 02: Analysis Has the amount of contractors being tendered to changed since the recessional period started? Results I can see from the transcripts there is a popular answer to this question. Interviewee numbers 3, 4 and 5 all agree that there has been some change in the amount of contractors being tendered too. Interviewee 1 the Senior Design Manager is alone when saying that there has been no change. He explains because Balfour Beatty is a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“big big companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? they have à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“a local supply chain in every major areaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. He explains that at Balfour Beatty they use contractors that they have had previous relationships with because à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“you get better quality out of themà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Interviewee number 2 is also alone with his answer. He states à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“Tender lists are long, but I am not too sure at the moment if this is better or worse than before.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. At the moment, he is unsure as to whether having long tender lists is better or worse than before. He then goes on to state a main problem with long tender lists is that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“contractors donà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t want to spend money on sustainability advice if they only have a low win probability.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Analysis There is a common answer among the professionals about the amount of contractors being tendered too. The two Building Surveyors and the Life Cycle Director all believed that there has been some change since the recession started. This tells me that the building surveyors definitely believe that there has been a significant change in the amount of contractors being tendered too. The Senior Design Manager (Interviewee 1), whom I believe is the professional with the most experience, is completely alone with his answer. This in my opinion is because he works at one of the largest construction companies in Europe. Although the recession would still have had an effect on Balfour Beatty, I believe they would not nearly be as affected by is as some of the smaller companies in the industry. The Commercial Sector Director (Interviewee 2) doesnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t really give a definitive answer to the question; he just states that the tender lists are long. Question 03: What financial arrangements have been put in place depending on sustainability? Results When asking this question you can see from the transcripts that there was a very popular occurrence of and around the term à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"BREEAM Excellentà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Interviewee numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 all mentioned the word BREEAM. Interviewee 1 said à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“I think if affected by the recession but ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s actually probably a very positive time for usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? he also went on to say à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“if you look at commercial projects whoever is building a commercial project has got to think about their tenant and tenants often look for; is it a sustainable building? So it is actually a marketing tool that we are using now you know to give us an advantage against our opponents so sustainability rather than having to take a back seat is actually at the forefront of a lot of the things we are doingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Interviewee number 5 did not mention anything about BREEAM but mentioned that he didnà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢t think financial arrangements have changed since the recession and also said à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“our company and I know for certain a lot of other companies have tried to build as sustainably as they can with the money they do have.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Analysis There is obviously a very popular trend amongst the professionals with BREEAM targets. Four out of the five interviewees mentioned something about BREEAM, whether it had been BREEAM excellent or the BREEAM qualifications, it was mentioned. By repeatedly getting the same sort of answer to my questions, it is very clear that hitting the necessary BREEAM target is paramount within all of the companies the interviewees worked for. Interviewee 1 says that at Balfour Beatty they use sustainability as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Marketing toolà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and also says that recession has had an effect on the construction industry but à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“ità ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s actually probably a very positive time for usà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. I believe that since the recession hit the construction industry there has been a need for sustainable commercial construction even more than before, so I think the recession could maybe be a good time for sustainable construction? Interviewee 5 did not mention anything about BREEAM excellence or qualifications or anything about BREEAM for that matter. He did however say that his company and others are trying to build as sustainably as they can with the money they have. This also backs Interviewee number 1à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s argument that the recession is having a positive effect on sustainable commercial construction. Question 04 Has the carbon reduction commitments become an issue when dealing with energy and carbon reduction? Results Between all of the five interviewees there is a very common trend amongst them. The Building Surveyors, Life Cycle Director, Senior Design Manager and the Commercial Sector Director all mention carbon reduction scores. Interviewee 1 talks about à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“hitting carbon calculatesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. He then goes on to say à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“youà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ve got to improve the energy efficiency year on yearà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. The Commercial Sector Director (Interviewee 2) said à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“carbon reduction commitments have only a small financial impact on owners and occupiersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. He continues then to say à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“the reputational risk of having a bad CRC score is seen as unacceptable in a recessional climateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Interviewee 3 states I believe that it has had an effect on companies who own older buildings as a lot of the older building have bad carbon reduction commitment scores therefore it looks pretty bad on them if their buildings are not performing very well.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? Analysis You can see from the interview transcripts that the carbon reduction commitments are obviously very very important. Interviewee 1 talks about à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“hitting carbon calculatesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Every company big or small needs to make sure they hit the targets that have been set. Interviewee 1 also says that you have à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“got to improve the energy efficiency year on yearà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. Since the recession started, it has made everything that has got to do with the construction industry tighter and on a smaller budget so everything has got to be improved. Interviewee number 2 said à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“carbon reduction commitments have only a small financial impact on owners and occupiersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?. I think 7.0 Conclusions 7.1 Scope of the Chapter This chapter looks at the research and will assess if the aims and objectives that were set out in the first chapter have been achieved. The conclusion will also investigate the findings and evaluate the limitations and future progressions into the subject 7.2 Conclusion This part will assess whether or not the aims and objectives that were set out in the first chapter have been achieved 7.3 Project Aim To show the audience exactly what a sustainable building is, what the recession is and to investigate whether Sustainable Commercial Construction has been affected by the current Recessional period 7.4 Project Objectives To define the recession To define sustainable construction To determine just how the recession and sustainable construction have been affected by each other. What barriers or influences encourage or deter companies to build Sustainable Commercial Buildings. This chapter will hopefully draw some conclusions from the data analysis and will try to meet the research aims and objectives shown above. Objective 1 To define the recession Within all the research a set definition for a recession has not been found for a number of reasons. The definition of a recession is broad and complex because of all the different factors than can cause a recession. You can ask any Tom, Dick or Harry what a recession is and the high percentage of them will give you the answer to the damages it can cause. They will all reply à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"loss of jobsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"plant closuresà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"tough time for familiesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. All these answers entail what a recession can cause, but not exactly what a recession is. Through the research process it is understood that there is a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"standard newspaper definitionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and a definition from the Business Cycle Dating Committee (BCDC). The two definitions are not the same, and it is unlikely that an agreed upon definition will be formulated. Maybe the definitions should be not only what a recession is, but also maybe what a recession poses to economy and the danger that lurks from being in a recession. If all this is put together into a definition then maybe a wider number of people will understand it and hopefully realise exactly what a recession is. Objective 2 To define sustainable construction Within all the research a set definition for sustainable construction has also not been found. This can be because there is much confusion associated with sustainable buildings. Research and data from the interviews shows that the most commonly used definition of a sustainable building is that from the Brundtland Report which defines a sustainable building as; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Although it is the definition that has been widely accepted, it cannot be viewed as industry accepted or a universally agreed upon definition. Every week, you will see something mentioned in the media about sustainability or sustainable buildings / construction but it is still relatively undefined. To get an industry accepted or universally agreed upon definition, a disciplined group or organization will need to do more research and then they will be able to come up with a definition. Objective 3 To determine just how the recession and sustainable construction have been affected by each other. One of the aims of the research was to determine just how the recession and sustainable construction have been affected by each other. 7.5 Project Aim Conclusion The aim of the project was to investigate whether sustainable commercial construction has been affected by the current recessional period. To some extents the aim has been met. I set out to also try and indicate to the audience exactly what a sustainable building was, and exactly what the recession is along with investigating whether they have had an effect on each other. In conclusion, it can be said the recession has had an effect on the construction industry on a whole. It is apparent through analysing the interviews that the recession has also had an effect on sustainable commercial construction. However, to my surprise it has been a positive effect, with the recession strengthening the need for sustainable commercial buildings. Companies are looking to the future, trying to gage what would make them top dogs and differentiate from competitors when everything picks up again and the answer is sustainable construction, especially in the commercial sector. I may be deemed mad by saying this, but I believe from my research and collection of data, the recession is actually strengthening the need for sustainable commercial construction and it has given it a kick up the backside. 7.6 Limitations This part will look at any limitations that could have affected or influenced the results of my findings. It will look carefully at the objectives and overall study and see whether this could have been improved 7.7 Sample There could be an argument that the sample of professionals interviewed could be deemed as too small. To improve this study, a larger number of interviewees could have been used. 7.8 Research Methodology As my dissertation subject hindered my choice in research, there was nothing in which I could have done to change the method of research. 7.9 Recommendations In hindsight, a greater number of interviewees would be used, and maybe vary the professional field they are currently in. This would strengthen the research collected as a wider view from different professionals in the industry would be gained.